Pay Cancel. About the book Read online. Book description. Detailed info. The Elements of Style Fourth Edition by The griffin classics — ebook, download epub, txt, mobi, pdf or read online. Leave comments and reviews, vote for your favorite. Post a review. What do you think about the book? Rate the book. Edit review. Share review. If the connective is and , the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate. If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each, replacing the semicolons by periods. Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting adventures. A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form, because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third, because briefer and therefore more forcible.
Indeed it may be said that this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition.
The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause or of consequence. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly , besides , then , therefore , or thus , and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
Two exceptions to the rule may be admitted. If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually permissible:.
Note that in these examples the relation is not one of cause or consequence. Also in the colloquial form of expression,. But this form of expression is inappropriate in writing, except in the dialogue of a story or play, or perhaps in a familiar letter.
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York. He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries. In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter. It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:. The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in syntax or in punctuation.
Rules 3 , 4 , 5 , and 6 cover the most important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature. The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence:.
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence. If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into topics.
Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether subdivision will not improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph. One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:.
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem the situation , if these call for explanation, and would then state the subject and outline its development.
If the poem is a narrative in the third person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly emphasized.
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given. As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs.
An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument. Frequent exceptions are also necessary in textbooks, guidebooks, and other works in which many topics are treated briefly. In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker.
The application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction. Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it, and to retain this purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, is that in which. If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed.
This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase again ; therefore ; for the same reason in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate paragraph. According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several different ways.
He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the contrary, by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs; or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow. But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism.
More commonly the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to be principally concerned. The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day. The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used. In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to the second passive is made the subject of the first.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that of completing the sentence. The habitual use of the active voice makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a verb in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is , or could be heard.
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention. All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; he wishes to be told what is.
Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form. The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:. If those who have studied the art of writing are in accord on any one point, it is on this, that the surest method of arousing and holding the attention of the reader is by being specific, definite, and concrete. Critics have pointed out how much of the effectiveness of the greatest writers, Homer, Dante, Shakespeare, results from their constant definiteness and concreteness.
Browning, to cite a more modern author, affords many striking examples. Take, for instance, the lines from My Last Duchess ,. These words call up pictures. Prose, in particular narrative and descriptive prose, is made vivid by the same means. If the experiences of Jim Hawkins and of David Balfour, of Kim, of Nostromo, have seemed for the moment real to countless readers, if in reading Carlyle we have almost the sense of being physically present at the taking of the Bastille, it is because of the definiteness of the details and the concreteness of the terms used.
It is not that every detail is given; that would be impossible, as well as to no purpose; but that all the significant details are given, and not vaguely, but with such definiteness that the reader, in imagination, can project himself into the scene. In exposition and in argument, the writer must likewise never lose his hold upon the concrete, and even when he is dealing with general principles, he must give particular instances of their application.
As we do not think in generals, but in particulars—as whenever any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by calling to mind individual members of it, it follows that when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to choose, from his stock of images, one or more by which he may figure to himself the genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise, some force be expended; and if by employing a specific term an appropriate image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more vivid impression produced.
Herbert Spencer, from whose Philosophy of Style the preceding paragraph is quoted, illustrates the principle by the sentences:. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that he make every word tell.
In especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of every sentence in which it occurs. See also under case , character , nature , system in Chapter V. As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentences or independent clauses which might to advantage be combined into one. This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or relative.
Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable see under Rule 4 , a series soon becomes monotonous and tedious. An unskilful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of sentences of this kind, using as connectives and , but , so , and less frequently, who , which , when , where , and while , these last in non-restrictive senses see under Rule 3. The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening, and a large audience was in attendance.
Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter.
The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive programme will be presented. Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is weak because of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 9 , or in any piece of good English prose, as the preface Before the Curtain to Vanity Fair. If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon, by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of three clauses—whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. The unskillful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions.
It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 9. But apart from this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it. By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term. Correlative expressions both, and ; not, but ; not only, but also ; either, or ; first, second, third ; and the like should be followed by the same grammatical construction, that is, virtually, by the same part of speech.
Many violations of this rule as the first three below arise from faulty arrangement; others as the last from the use of unlike constructions.
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last under Rule It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep apart those which are not so related. The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning. The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts the natural order of the main clause.
Connect with us to learn more. William Strunk, Jr. The book was published in by Oliver Strunk. White was a student in Professor Strunk's class at Cornell, and used "the little book" for himself. We're sorry! We don't recognize your username or password. Please try again. The work is protected by local and international copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning.
You have successfully signed out and will be required to sign back in should you need to download more resources. Elements of Style, The, 4th Edition. William Strunk E. There is no defense for such punctuation as Marjories husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit yesterday. Dates usually contain parenthetic words or figures. A name or a title in direct address is parenthetic. If, Sir, you refuse, I cannot predict what will happen. Well, Susan, this is a fine mess you are in. The abbreviations etc.
Letters, packages, etc. Horace Fulsome, Ph. No comma, however, should separate a noun from a restrictive term of identification. James Wright Jr. Commas are therefore needed. A nonrestrictive clause is one that does not serve to identify or define the antecedent noun.
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested. In , when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. In these sentences, the clauses introduced by which, when, and where are nonrestrictive; they do not limit or define, they merely add something. In the first example, the clause introduced by which does not serve to tell which of several possible audiences is meant; the reader presumably knows that already.
The clause adds, parenthetically, a statement supplementing that in the main clause. Each of the three sentences is a combination of two statements that might have been made independently. The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more interested.
Napoleon was born in At that time Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. Nether Stowey is a few miles from Bridgewater. Restrictive clauses, by contrast, are not parenthetic and are not set off by commas. Thus, People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. Here the clause introduced by who does serve to tell which people are meant; the sentence, unlike the sentences above, cannot be split into two independent statements.
The same principle of comma use applies to participial phrases and to appositives. Partly by hard fighting, partly by diplomatic skill, they enlarged their dominions to the east and rose to royal rank with the possession of Sicily. The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape. Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as in the sense of "because" , for, or, nor, or while in the sense of "and at the same time" likewise require a comma before the conjunction.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction. The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly, there is still one chance of escape. When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is useful if the connective is but.
When the connective is and, the comma should be omitted if the relation between the two statements is close or immediate. I have heard the arguments, but am still unconvinced. He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent. If two or more clauses grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas. It is, of course, equally correct to write each of these as two sentences, replacing the semicolons with periods. Mary Shelley's works are entertaining. They are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark. If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma.
Rule 4. Mary Shelley's works are entertaining, for they are full of engaging ideas. It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark. A comparison of the three forms given above will show clearly the advantage of the first. It is, at least in the examples given, better than the second form because it suggests the close relationship between the two statements in a way that the second does not attempt, and better than the third because it is briefer and therefore more forcible.
Indeed, this simple method of indicating relationship between statements is one of the most useful devices of composition. The relationship, as above, is commonly one of cause and consequence. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb. An exception to the semicolon rule is worth noting here. A comma is preferable when the clauses are very short and alike in form, or when the tone of the sentence is easy and conversational. Man proposes, God disposes. The gates swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn up. I hardly knew him, he was so changed.
Here today, gone tomorrow. In other words, do not use periods for commas. I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.
She was an interesting talker. A woman who had traveled all over the world and lived in half a dozen countries. In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma and the following word begun with a small letter. It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly: Again and again he called out. No reply. The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, lest a clipped sentence seem merely a blunder in syntax or in punctuation.
Generally speaking, the place for broken sentences is in dialogue, when a character happens to speak in a clipped or fragmentary way. Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most important principles that govern punctuation.
They should be so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature. A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause.
The colon has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and more formality than the dash. It usually follows an independent clause and should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object. The examples in the lefthand column, below, are wrong; they should be rewritten as in the righthand column.
Your dedicated whittler requires: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows from: theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation.
Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge that grows from theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation. Join two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first. But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray. A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause.
The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. Dear Mr. Montague: departs at P. A dash is a mark of separation stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than parentheses.
His first thought on getting out of bed — if he had any thought at all — was to get back in again. The rear axle began to make a noise — a grinding, chattering, teeth-gritting rasp. Use a dash only when a more common mark of punctuation seems inadequate. Her father's suspicions proved well- Her father's suspicions proved well- founded — it was not Edward she cared founded.
It was not Edward she cared for, it for — it was San Francisco. Violence — the kind you see on Violence, the kind you see on television, is television — is not honestly violent — there not honestly violent. There lies its harm. Words that intervene between subject and verb do not affect the number of the verb. The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, The bittersweet flavor of youth — its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges — are its joys, its adventures, its challenges — is not soon forgotten.
A common blunder is the use of a singular verb form in a relative clause following "one of One of the ablest scientists who has attacked One of the ablest scientists who have this problem attacked this problem One of those people who is never ready on One of those people who are never ready on time time Use a singular verb form after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone.
Everybody thinks he has a unique sense of humor. Although both clocks strike cheerfully, neither keeps good time. With none, use the singular verb when the word means "no one" or "not one. None of us is perfect. A plural verb is commonly used when none suggests more than one thing or person. A compound subject formed of two or more nouns joined by and almost always requires a plural verb. The walrus and the carpenter were walking close at hand. But certain compounds, often cliches, are so inseparable they are considered a unit and so take a singular verb, as do compound subjects qualified by each or every.
The long and the short of it is Bread and butter was all she served. Give and take is essential to a happy household. Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed. A singular subject remains singular even if other nouns are connected to it by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, and no less than.
His speech as well as his manner is objectionable. A linking verb agrees with the number of its subject. What is wanted is a few more pairs of hands. The trouble with truth is its many varieties. Some nouns that appear to be plural are usually construed as singular and given a singular verb. Politics is an art, not a science. The Republican Headquarters is on this side of the tracks. But The general's quarters are across the river. The contents of a book is singular.
The contents of a jar may be either singular or plural, depending on what's in the jar — jam or marbles. The personal pronouns, as well as the pronoun who, change form as they function as subject or object. Will Jane or he be hired, do you think?
The culprit, it turned out, was he. We heavy eaters would rather walk than ride. Who knocks? Give this work to whoever looks idle. In the last example, whoever is the subject of looks idle; the object of the preposition to is the entire clause whoever looks idle. When who introduces a subordinate clause, its case depends on its function in that clause. Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we Virgil Soames is the candidate who we think will win.
Sandy writes better than I. Than I write. In general, avoid "understood" verbs by supplying them. I think Horace admires Jessica more than I. I think Horace admires Jessica more than I do. Polly loves cake more than me. Polly loves cake more than she loves me.
The objective case is correct in the following examples. The ranger offered Shirley and him some advice on campsites. Let's talk it over between us, then, you and me.
Whom should I ask? A group of us taxpayers protested. Us in the last example is in apposition to taxpayers, the object of the preposition of. The wording, although grammatically defensible, is rarely apt. Use the simple personal pronoun as a subject. Blake and myself stayed home. Blake and I stayed home. Howard and yourself brought the lunch, I Howard and you brought the lunch, I thought. The possessive case of pronouns is used to show ownership.
It has two forms: the adjectival modifier, your hat, and the noun form, a hat of yours. The dog has buried one of your gloves and one of mine in the flower bed. Gerunds usually require the possessive case. Mother objected to our driving on the icy roads. A present participle as a verbal, on the other hand, takes the objective case. They heard him singing in the shower.
The difference between a verbal participle and a gerund is not always obvious, but note what is really said in each of the following. Do you mind me asking a question? Do you mind my asking a question? In the first sentence, the queried objection is to me, as opposed to other members of the group, asking a question.
In the second example, the issue is whether a question may be asked at all. Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children.
The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. To make it refer to the woman, the writer must recast the sentence.
He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they begin the sentence.
On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him On arriving in Chicago, he was met at the at the station. A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted him with the defense of the city.
Young and inexperienced, the task seemed Young and inexperienced, I thought the task easy to me. Without a friend to counsel him, the Without a friend to counsel him, he found temptation proved irresistible. Sentences violating Rule 11 are often ludicrous: Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very cheap. Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.
A basic structural design underlies every kind of writing. Writers will in part follow this design, in part deviate from it, according to their skills, their needs, and the unexpected events that accompany the act of composition.
Writing, to be effective, must follow closely the thoughts of the writer, but not necessarily in the order in which those thoughts occur. This calls for a scheme of procedure. In some cases, the best design is no design, as with a love letter, which is simply an outpouring, or with a casual essay, which is a ramble.
But in most cases, planning must be a deliberate prelude to writing. The first principle of composition, therefore, is to foresee or determine the shape of what is to come and pursue that shape.
A sonnet is built on a fourteen-line frame, each line containing five feet. Hence, sonneteers know exactly where they are headed, although they may not know how to get there.
Most forms of composition are less clearly defined, more flexible, but all have skeletons to which the writer will bring the flesh and the blood.
The more clearly the writer perceives the shape, the better are the chances of success. The paragraph is a convenient unit; it serves all forms of literary work. As long as it holds together, a paragraph may be of any length — a single, short sentence or a passage of great duration. If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you intend to treat it briefly, there may be no need to divide it into topics.
Thus, a brief description, a brief book review, a brief account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of a single idea — any one of these is best written in a single paragraph.
After the paragraph has been written, examine it to see whether division will improve it. Ordinarily, however, a subject requires division into topics, each of which should be dealt with in a paragraph.
The beginning of each paragraph is a signal that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached. As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation between the parts of an exposition or argument In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is usually a paragraph by itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker.
The application of this rule when dialogue and narrative are combined is best learned from examples in well-edited works of fiction. Sometimes a writer, seeking to create an effect of rapid talk or for some other reason, will elect not to set off each speech in a separate paragraph and instead will run speeches together.
The common practice, however, and the one that serves best in most instances, is to give each speech a paragraph of its own. As a rule, begin each paragraph either with a sentence that suggests the topic or with a sentence that helps the transition.
If a paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed.
This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase again, therefore, for the same reason in the first sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient to get into the topic slowly, by way of a sentence or two of introduction or transition. In narration and description, the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise, comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow.
The breeze served us admirably. The campaign opened with a series of reverses. The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries. But when this device, or any device, is too often used, it becomes a mannerism. More commonly, the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject the direction the paragraph is to take. At length I thought I might return toward the stockade. He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore. Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
The break between such paragraphs merely serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action. In general, remember that paragraphing calls for a good eye as well as a logical mind.
Enormous blocks of print look formidable to readers, who are often reluctant to tackle them. Therefore, breaking long paragraphs in two, even if it is not necessary to do so for sense, meaning, or logical development, is often a visual help. But remember, too, that firing off many short paragraphs in quick succession can be distracting. Paragraph breaks used only for show read like the writing of commerce or of display advertising.
Moderation and a sense of order should be the main considerations in paragraphing. The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive: I shall always remember my first visit to Boston. This is much better than My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me. The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me," My first visit to Boston will always be remembered, it becomes indefinite: is it the writer or some undisclosed person or the world at large that will always remember this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary. The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration. The first would be the preferred form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the Restoration, the second in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing.
This is true not only in narrative concerned principally with action but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as there is or could be heard. There were a great number of dead leaves Dead leaves covered the ground. At dawn the crowing of a rooster could be The cock's crow came with dawn. The reason he left college was that his Failing health compelled him to leave health became impaired.
It was not long before she was very sorry She soon repented her words. Note, in the examples above, that when a sentence is made stronger, it usually becomes shorter.
Thus, brevity is a by-product of vigor. Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, noncommittal language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never as a means of evasion. He was not very often on time. He usually came late. She did not think that studying Latin was a She thought the study of Latin a waste of sensible way to use one's time. Shakespeare does not portray unattractive.
Katharine is disagreeable, Katharine as a very admirable character, nor Bianca insignificant. The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention. All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only what is not; the reader wishes to be told what is.
Hence, as a rule, it is better to express even a negative in positive form. Not charity, but simple justice. Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country. Negative words other than not are usually strong. Statements qualified with unnecessary auxiliaries or conditionals sound irresolute. If you would let us know the time of your If you will let us know the time of your arrival, we would be happy to arrange your arrival, we shall be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport.
Applicants can make a good impression by Applicants will make a good impression if being neat and punctual.
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